Organic growers have done far more than just grow healthy fruit and vegetables and animal products, they are protecting the environment and have improved the public image of farmers more than any government legislation, farming group or organisation.

Organic farmers have won the hearts of greenies through their compassionate environmental practices, they have won the hearts of middle and upper class Australians by providing good healthy nutritious food that has taken into account the real costs of all the inputs without government assistance. They are leaders in their methods and methodology of the culture of agriculture. And to the poor they have been none wasteful in disposing of excess crops in times of abundance to charities. This to me makes them world leaders in their field and Australia, New Zealand in fact all of Oceania can be proud of the way they have taken the lead from Europe and are now themselves the world leaders.

This is undoubtedly one of my favourite topics. The reasons are clearly expressed above and it was the area that we found success in, right from the beginning in the Nursery, later on our Citrus orchard, in the garden and in the surrounding bush. By not interfering with nature but duplicating and expanding on her examples throughout the property led to our remarkable success in the area of Organic Integrated Plant Management. This was achieved not on 1/2 a hectare or the 6 hectares of the orchard but over the 42 hectares of our property and the surrounding forests, integrating the whole into the farm and the farm into the whole. While we had the occasional outbreak of pests in the initial years they never became a problem in any area on the property.

Our ten acres at The Pinnacles has seen over 600 fungi species excellent flower beds and 3 year old citrus trees produce over 30 kilograms of fruit. The vegetable patch never lies bare and for a small area of 40 square meters supplies us with 12 months of Coriander, Garlic Chives, Shallots, Snake beans, Snow peas, Pod peas, Tomatoes, 25 kilograms of Ginger, Butternut pumpkins, Lettuce, Broccoli Bok Choi and Chinese Cabbage. The bush Garden supplies us with Native raspberries, Mint for tea, lemon myrtle tea, lemon and lime cordial, fresh and frozen Mandarine and Orange juice, Lemons, Limes, Custard Apples, Native Currants fresh and dried, jams from our Native grape, two species of Davidson Plum, Finger limes and many Lilypillies as jams and on our breakfast oatmeal and Taro while complimenting the 150 odd species of native trees and shrubs.

If I sound a little repetitive it is because the experiences we had were consistent and repetitive in Organic Integrated Management Control. (OIMC) If they worked once for me they worked a thousand times behind the scenes. Which reminds me of what my daughter once said with my reply? “Dad you are a farmer extraordinaire.” I replied “I am lazy that is why I coerce Nature to do most the work.”

This area is similar but in far more detail and a little more scientific than the files on garden pests, more consistent with a practical perspective of horticulture than the gardener however the principles are the same. Yes, the same principles used by organic farms can be applied to your own garden by following the four tiered approach as outlined below.

The following is a short extract which is so adequately written; from page 7, I decided to cite it in full. pip.coleacp.org/…/COLEAC001_PIP_Module_10_UK_pp

“At the present time, most small scale horticultural producers unfortunately resort to the routine use of synthetic pesticides, (Mostly in third world countries where the dangers of toxic chemicals are not explained or fully understood.) Sometimes they comprise of highly complex blends of various products, without knowing anything about their properties. As vegetables are short-cycle crops, which are consumed fresh or after having undergone minor processing, the risks incurred through the excessive, uncontrolled use of inputs

(pesticides/fertilizers) are all too real and have been the subject of expert debates that have highlighted the following issues:

* The presence in harvested produce of residues at concentrations that is harmful to consumer health;

* Contamination of ground and surface waters;

* Destruction of beneficial organisms and natural enemies and, as a general rule, a loss of biodiversity;

* Adverse effect on the health of operators, and that of their families, following repeated exposure;

* Frequent accidents (inadvertent poisoning(from spillages and children));

* Development of resistance by the pests and diseases that are to be eradicated;

* Emergence of new and hitherto unnoticed pests and diseases;

* A reduction in soil fertility (and soil carbon is the end result from the continual use of synthetic toxic products and the lack of both green and brown composts).

These risks are compounded by the increased dependency on chemicals by the farming community who are faced with the need to purchase inputs (pesticides/fertilizers), and the loss of income when the use of such products is not off set by an increased yield and or healthier harvested crops and improved plant protection.”

Let’s now look at what Organic Integrated Pest Management (OIPM). It is an effective and environmentally sustainable approach to pest management that relies on a combination of common sense practices. OIPM programs use current, comprehensive information on the life cycles of pests and their interaction with the environment. This information, in combination with the latest available pest control methods, is used to manage pest damage by the most economical means with no or minimal damage to people, property, and the environment.

The OIPM approach can be applied to both agricultural and non agricultural settings, such as the home, garden, forestry and the workplace. Organic Integrated Pest Management uses all the appropriate pest management options including, the use of semi natural toxic chemicals (Alison from Garlic) and targeted toxic natural insecticides (Pyrethrum- from Daisies) and herbicides (vegetable oils – Neem Oil ). Therefore, organic food production, applies good OIPM without the need for toxic synthetic or even semi toxic synthetic insecticides and herbicides, limiting themselves to those that are produced from natural sources and preferably with the use of biodiversity in the forms of predation and prevention. Organic insecticides and herbicides break down quickly in the soil whereas the synthetic toxins remain active against the environment for extended periods of years and in some cases decades (Arsenic) with many being carcinogenic (ethylene oxide).

Facts and table below reviewed from the Cancer Council of Australia websites.

* Arsenic and arsenic compounds are no longer used in pesticides in Australia; ethylene oxide was used in three pesticides licensed for use in Australia until July 2012. Many other pesticides have been reviewed by IARC but there is insufficient evidence to establish them as conclusive or probable causes of cancer in humans at the present time with monitoring still on going. This in itself is evidence that chemical companies are only required to carry out short term inconclusive studies which are bias towards company profits rather than good sustainable science while the community through their taxes is the monitoring body of all existing insecticides and herbicides at a cost of millions of dollars over many years and decades.

* Studies have shown a possible association between cancer and occupational exposure to four pesticide chemicals: metolachlor, pendimethalin, permethrin and trifluralin at the present time in use in Australia. Like many toxic chemicals (cigarette smoke) they were placed before the consumer as beneficial only to be proven otherwise after exhaustive science research and challenges to the public purse that has to foot the bill in scientific reexamination and monitoring then the many legal challenges to overturn legislation at both federal and state levels.

* Meta-analyses (i.e. analyses of multiple international studies) have shown an association between women exposed to insecticides in pregnancy and an increased risk of leukemia in their children. These studies were limited; causation could not be confirmed. More and better quality research is required into the possible links between antenatal exposure to insecticides and childhood leukemia.

* The wide range of chemicals used in pesticides and herbicides, synergistic affects and exposure to other possible carcinogens in workers who may also use pesticides, make it impossible to currently establish direct links between pesticides used in Australia and cancer.

* It is not clear if pesticides and herbicides are attributable for these elevated incidence rates, because workers in these sectors are also exposed to a range of other potential carcinogens. For example, agricultural workers are regularly exposed to diesel exhaust, solvents, metals, grain dusts, zoonotic (transmissible from animals to humans) viruses and ultraviolet radiation, all of which could compound the relationship between pesticides and cancer^.

* The time lag between environmental exposures and the development of some cancers may make it difficult to draw conclusions about current workplace exposures. This time lag also means it is difficult to study new pesticides, as associated cancers may occur many years or even decades after their introduction and exposure. For example, agricultural workers could develop cancers through exposure to arsenic and arsenic compounds used in pesticides many years later even after arsenic products were no longer permitted in Australia.

* Overall, there is no conclusive evidence linking many cancer incidences or mortality with pesticides currently used in Australia. However, the evidence is limited due to the reasons outlined above (short term, budget cost constraints and the problem of multiple exposures on individuals compounding the pure issue). This also means it is impossible to conclude there is no link between pesticide exposure and cancer however one has to keep in mind the testing that has had conclusive results in animals deliberately exposed to those same chemicals.

The following table is an overview of Pesticide Carcinogenicity Classifications:

The IUARC has classified various pesticides according to their carcinogenic potential. For the full list of agents classified as insecticides & herbicides open www.iarc.fr

Abstract from PubMed’s website

Epidemiologic evidence on the relationship between toxic chemical pesticides in everyday use and cancer was reviewed. In animal studies, many pesticides like organ chlorines, creosote, and sulfallates are carcinogenic while others notably, the organ chlorines DDT, chlordane, and lindane are tumor promoters. Some contaminants in commercial pesticide formulations also may pose a carcinogenic risk. In humans, arsenic compounds and insecticides used occupationally have been classified as carcinogens by the International Agency for Research on Cancer. Human data, however, are limited by the small number of studies that evaluate individual pesticides. Epidemiologic studies, although sometimes contradictory, have linked phenoxy acid herbicides or contaminants in them with soft tissue sarcoma (STS) and malignant lymphoma; organ chlorine insecticides are linked with STS, non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma (NHL), leukemia, and, less consistently, with cancers of the lungs and breasts, organ phosphorous compounds are linked with NHL and leukemia; and triazine herbicides with ovarian cancer. Few, if any, of these associations can be considered established and causal. Hence, further epidemiologic studies are needed with detailed exposure assessment for individual pesticides, taking into consideration work practices.

The author notes that the use of protective clothing and equipment, and other measures to reduce the risks does not in any way reduce the carcinogenic properties of the pesticides in question. If the said chemicals cause cancers to form or promote tumors in various higher order vertebrates in tests then there is absolutely no reason to question that they do not react differently in humans over the same period of time. Humans are often exposed to a wider range of chemical pesticides; than the animals in tests, which may have synergistic properties compounding and accentuating the real chances of developing a lethal tumor.

Introduction to 0IPM:

Organic Integrated Pest Management has been proven as an effective combination of organic chemical (natural pyrethrum & BT bt Bacillus thuringiensis), management practices and biological methods in order to keep insect pest numbers down to a manageable level where early intervention will result in minimal economic or visual damage. GIPM provides practical alternatives to conventional pest control that often relies on toxic synthetic chemicals which are applied on a regular basis.

Organic growers have reported that adopting OIPM strategies has helped them to regain control over chemical resistant pests, minimize worker and environmental impacts, deleted all ties and reliance on toxic synthetic pesticide use and residues, satisfies the needs of their consumers and the marketplace, reduces input costs dramatically and meets all quality assurance requirements.

What is a pest?

There are four general types of pests that damage our plants and which affect decisions on why, how, when and which method of control should be implemented.

* Indirect Damage: Feeds on nonmarketable portion of plant, causing yield loss. (aphids feeding on new growth affects fruit size, quality and quantity.)

* Direct Damage: Feeds on marketable portion of plant, causing primarily quality loss. (Bats or Lorikeet – consuming fruit – damages fruits.)

* Vector Diseases: Insect transmits organism that causes plant disease, causing yield and quality losses. (White Mites – Brown spot – Overall deterioration of the health and vigor of the plants.)

* Contamination: Presence of insects, insect parts, or insect products makes produce less valuable, causing quality loss. (Sooty Mould – blackens the fruit and plant – loss of vigor in the plants.)

OIPM Principles:

* Know the history and natural life cycles of the pests in your seedling nursery, nursery, orchard, farm or garden,

* Be proactive in aiming for biological prevention and control rather than eradication,

* Make sanitation on your property your a priority after personal and worker safety,

* Monitor your crops (garden) and growing environment as often as you can,

* Record crop and pest observations, photography is a cheap and fantastic method of recording times and occurrences,

* Gain confidence in OICP through education, observation, and action,

* Access training in the OICP principles for yourself and your staff from State Agricultureal Departments where they exist, Organic organizations and clubs,

* Use available resources like consultants, researchers, books, fact sheets, the internet and myself or other members in your locality,

* Understand why the “OIPM” approach is essential for successful sustainability of farm land suburbs and the environment,

* Incorporate large volumes of compost and or mulch is one on the most affective ways to reduce harmful unwanted pests and to increase the soil carbon content. This includes using various mulches and rotating the mulches. Mono mulches while good are also susceptible to providing suitable growing conditions for certain viruses. Mulches also create environments to a multitude of organisms which help maintain a balance thus eliminating or at worst resisting the outgrowth of any one particular organism, fungus, bacteria or virus both detrimental and beneficial,

* The presence of a balanced environment is conducive and beneficial to the reproduction and survival of all organisms which add to the fertility and nutrition of all the inhabitants of their local environment and ultimately to the environment as a whole worldwide.

Management components of OIPM

There is a lot the gardener can do to avoid pest problems. The correct selection of suitable plants for your environment, district and aspect will greatly lessen the impact pests will create in the future. Correction selection will allow the crop to avoid, resist, or delay interaction with the pest and assist in the harbouring of predatory organisms of the pest. This was a vital criterion in the setting up of our garden and orchard. We took into consideration as much as possible even prevailing winds and possible insect pest flights as even a slight breeze will affect number migration like katydids or 28 spotted lady birds which can cause considerable damage quickly if not checked in time.

Good crop hygiene, site selection, fallow periods, crop free periods on a regional level and what the neighbours have already planted, planting date changes that consider insect pest flight paths and seasons will help minimize damage, old/new crop overlaps, resistant varieties, crop rotation, culling diseased plants, insect barriers, removal of pest habitats, encouragement of predator habitats and restricted people movements in some cases. Read quickly this doesn’t appear much but in reality there is a lot that needs to be done and worked on to convert a chemically toxic property to one of long term sustainability.

Chemical options

Chemical options involve the use of natural or biological, locally available “soft chemical pesticides” with a narrow spectrum to alter pest behaviour, attract insect pests for monitoring, reduce the presence or impact of pests, or to change the attractiveness of the host crop or your property. “Soft chemical pesticides” are those chemicals or biological extractions that provide effective control of a pest with reduced impact on beneficial specie that are extracted naturally from plants or other living organisms.

Varietal options

Resistant varieties decrease the impact of pests and should be used whenever available and horticulturally suitable to your district. Some varieties especially GMO crops are prohibited by organics.

Biological options

Often Biological control is far cheaper than chemical control, but needs greater observational powers and is far quicker to instigate:

* Observe the problem – Is it getting worse or has it stabilized?

* If getting worse. Pick up the phone and order the appropriate bug,

* When they arrive (usually two days later) in the mail dispatch as per instructions – walk through our orchard (1 hour).

Compared to chemicals:

Start tractor, wear appropriate safety attire, which has been bought at great cost, set spray up unit, pour in expensive chemical, fuel tractor,

spray crop, return to shed, wash down spray unit and beware of run off, disconnect unit and wash up. (carrying out the above and to slash our orchard 41/2 hours).

These options rely on natural predatory organisms or introduced organisms that limit the impact of a pest. Encourage and extend the habitats and populations of beneficial organisms, parasitoids, antagonists, and predators, or which promote a crop’s acquired resistance. Beneficial organisms include all predatory insects, mites, and spiders; parasitic wasps, nematodes, flies, frogs, birds; and fungi or bacteria that attack pests or outcompete them for potential sites. (See file on Gardens Friends on how to set up habitats and attractants for various organisms.)

Now let’s look at applying the above programs to your farm, orchard, nursery or home garden on some of the pests you may encounter. These principles can be applied to all the other pests not mentioned with equal satisfaction.

Thrips:

The most important thing here is to accurately identify the thrips; and to have unknown species expertly identified so that they can be appropriately managed. Thrips like aphids can be the spreader of disease through the garden.

Thrips are small, slender yellow, green, grey, or black torpedo shaped insects. Of the 5,500 known species of thrips, fewer than 90 are problem some in the horticultural industry and even fewer cause significant damage to flowers, foliage, and fruit when feeding. Most species feed on fungi or plants. The biggest problem may arise as around 20 different species are known to be transmitters of several horticultural viruses in the Tospovirus group. They prefer a wide range of vegetable crops and soft perennials as hosts. This has had a marked influence on their distribution and abundance of these insect pests especially in the fresh fruit, vegetable and flower industry.

Adult thrips are poor fliers, but are easily dispersed by wind which is why the prevailing windward side of your garden is more prone to infection. Thrips are found in the voids between petals and sepals of flowers or between the bracts and growing tips of young seedlings and shoots or at times on the undersides of young leaves. Thrips numbers are easily accessed by using yellow sticky traps placed at several locations throughout the orchard, crop or garden.

Thrips like aphids cause direct damage by using their piercing and sucking mouthparts to pierce plant cells and suck the cell contents, which results in the deformation of flowers, leaves, stems, shoots, and fruits.

Organic Integrated Pest Management

Virus infected plants cannot be saved. Control measures to prevent or reduce the levels of it spreading must be implemented immediately, which include removal and burning or composting of all plant material in hot compost. Hot compost involves the burning of the infected material towards the center and using a high nitrogenous compost mix so that the temperatures remain very high for several days to a week. Minimizing the spread of the infected thrips is critical to reducing further outbreaks on the property and adjacent properties.

* Garden/Agricultural Hygiene: Old crops infested with thrips are the major source of virus recontamination and should be sprayed for thrips and removed as soon as possible. This is imperative if similar crops are to be planted nearby or garden plants are involved if young crops. An infected garden plant must be removed and burnt.

* Use of sticky traps: Once thrips have been detected at increasing numbers above the norm for your area the use of blue and yellow sticky traps to capture adult thrips is a useful tool to help avoid the numbers becoming problem some. Thrips are attracted to yellow and pale blue over other colours making them more selective.

* Crop rotation and spacing: Avoid overlapping sowings of susceptible crops and sequential plantings side by side or adjacent to infected areas to minimize virus spread from one crop to the next.

* Weeds removal: The elimination or management of soft weeds especially on the windward side, moist areas on higher land and headlands, irrigation channels, on fallow land, under hydroponic tables and around greenhouses as they are humid habitats which thrips enjoy and host thrips and their viruses. Flowering weeds are particularly attractive to thrips and it is recommended that weeds be destroyed well before planting and not as crops are planted, as virus infected thrips will migrate from the infected weeds to the young healthy plants.

Small populations of mites preferably downwind and along creeks are often breeding grounds for predatory thrips at the same time as they find seclusion, safety and a regular food supply. Most these areas when correctly managed do not add to the breeding ground of the pests but encourage a balance between consumer and predator.

* Healthy planting material: Check all introduced plant material for infected plants. Seedling plants should be located well away from production areas, kept weed free and systematically monitored for insect pests and diseases.

* Biological control: If predator numbers are high enough there are biological control thrips available which are cheaper and safer than using a blanket spray of toxins. Predatory mites like Hypoaspis sp. and Montdorensis sp. are great alternatives.

* Use of resistant varieties: Some varieties of flowers and vegetables are more resistant to attack and a mixture of these or rotation of these, are another method of deterring outbreaks. Other subtle methods would be to grow these crops out of the normal breeding times of thrips or abstain from growing thrip affected plants for a season or two.

* Natural Pyrethrum is an acceptable control of thrip as a last resort. It has to be remembered that pyrethrum is a non selective insecticide that does not just kill the thrips targeted but kills spiders and other predatory mites as well.

* Use of thrips proof mesh: Thrip proof mesh is ideal at the entrances to greenhouses and shade houses,

* Incorporate large volumes of compost and or mulch is one on the most affective ways to reduce harmful unwanted pests and to increase the soil carbon content. This includes using various mulches and rotating the mulches. Mono mulches while good are also susceptible to providing suitable growing conditions for certain viruses. Mulches also create environments to a multitude of organisms which help maintain a balance thus eliminating or at worst resisting the outgrowth of any one particular organism, fungus, bacteria or virus both detrimental and beneficial.

Minute predatory wasps can be purchased from places like bugs for Bugs at very reasonable prices.

Aphids:

Aphids you say, Aphidian comprise of some 1360 odd species with more being discovered in remote places of the world or in rainforest jungles. So which one is giving you the headache? Aphids love nitrogen and soft leaves and stems that high nitrogen consuming plants produce. High nitrogen will speed the sap flow up and speed the reproductive cycle of the aphids up.

Let’s look at the aphid’s life cycle. The eggs hatch in early spring as the weather warms up. The females have wings and after they do what they have to do, to reproduce fly to a preferred host plant to feed. 7 to 10 days later she gives birth to 40 to 60 live young which are all females. This continues until the weather begins to cool down at the end of autumn. Now for some reason the last batch of young produced are both male and female. The females lay eggs which lay dormant over winter. As you can see if there is no biological control 10 aphids on your favourite tree become 400 to 600 in 7 to 10 days and by the next generation you have 16,000 to 36,000 of the little sap suckers sucking the hell out of your garden. The next generation that comes along will produce around 2,160,000. What in the hell are you going to do?

Aphids are a major pest of vegetable crops. They are sap-sucking insects and have piercing, sucking mouthparts, and are the most common group of virus vectors or carriers. All Potyviruses which are the largest group of viruses by the way are transmitted by aphids. They are commonly seen in spring and autumn when the weather is mild and humid. Aphid colonies produce honeydew, encouraging sooty mould growth which reduces overall plant vigour. Large numbers will cause leaf distortion and malformation of new growth including flower buds. 

Aphids as virus vectors:

Aphids can only transmit plant viruses while they feed. Particular species of aphids can transmit viruses like necrotic yellows, potato virus Y, watermelon mosaic virus types I and II, lettuce mosaic virus, and other similar mosaic viruses. A virus can only be transmitted by an aphid in one of two ways: www.ausveg.com.au

* Nonpersistent Transmission:  This form of transmission takes an aphid less than one minute of feeding to acquire the virus and the same time to infect another plant when feeding. The virus remains viable externally on the aphids’ mouthparts for few hours only.

* Persistent Transmission: This form of transmission takes several hours of feeding for an aphid to acquire the virus. The virus enters the aphid’s circuitry system eventually arriving in salivary glands before being transmitted to another susceptible plant. This generally takes 12 or more hours. The aphid can also transmit the virus for rest of its life without needing to obtain more viruses from an infected plant. 

Organic Integrated Pest Management

Good Integrated Pest Management can provide effective control of aphid populations. Aphids have many predators, including ladybird beetles, lacewings, hover flies and parasitic wasps. The parasitic wasp Aphidius colemani effectively controls aphids and is commercially available.

Most aphids are restricted to a few kinds of hosts or are host specific. That is those found on your Syzygium sp. will not feed on your citrus or plum trees, they are all different.

Sticky cards are a useful monitoring tool for aphids and when their numbers start to increase start checking the new growth especially on the lower leaf laminas. The presence of honeydew, or black from sooty mould growing on the honeydew is a good sign of increased aphid activity.

* Garden/Agricultural Hygiene: Old crops infested with aphids are the major source of virus recontamination and should be sprayed for aphids and removed as soon as possible. This is imperative if similar crops are to be planted nearby or garden plants are involved if young crops. An infected garden plant must be removed and burnt,

* Use of sticky traps: Once aphids have been detected at increasing numbers above the norm for your area the use of blue and yellow sticky traps to capture adult aphids is a useful tool to help avoid the numbers becoming problem some. Aphids are attracted to yellow over other colours making them more selective,

* Crop rotation and spacing: Avoid overlapping sowings of susceptible crops and sequential plantings side by side or adjacent to infected areas to minimize virus spread from one crop to the next,

* Weeds removal: The elimination or management of soft weeds especially on the windward side, moist areas on higher land and headlands, irrigation channels, on fallow land, under hydroponic tables and around greenhouses as they are humid habitats which aphids enjoy and host aphids and their viruses. Flowering weeds are particularly attractive to aphids and it is recommended that weeds be destroyed well before planting and not as crops are planted, as virus infected aphids will migrate from the infected weeds to the young healthy plants,

Small populations of mites preferably downwind and along creeks are often breeding grounds for predatory aphids at the same time as they find seclusion, safety and a regular food supply. Most these areas when correctly managed do not add to the breeding ground of the pests but encourage a balance between consumer and predator.

* Healthy planting material: Check all introduced plant material that is it free of virus and or aphids. Seedling plants should be located well away from production areas, kept weed free and systematically monitored for insect pests and diseases,

* Biological control: If predator numbers are high enough there are biological control aphids available which are cheaper and safer than using a blanket spray of toxins. On the first site of aphids increasing in numbers in the orchard we immediately phoned Bugs for Bugs and bought a shipment of green lace wings. More cost effective and far less time consuming than the application of toxic insecticides. By the time they arrived within the week lady birds would be seen to ram the lesson home the green lace wings are ferocious eaters and reproducers. After two years of purchasing the green lace wing, our orchard had reached a balance. When we first see the aphids we knew within a week the lady birds and Green Lace Wing would appear naturally.

Lady bugs lay 800 to 1,000 eggs over the 3 months of their lives and reside close to their food source of aphids or mites. The eggs hatch in 2 to 14 days. The larvae have 4 instars before it pupates. After 7 to 10 days as pupae the adults emerge. They winter beneath rocks, logs or even coarse mulch in natural bush land. It is important to have natural landscape around to keep the balanced cycle going. Lady bugs are general insect eaters having a wide variety of prey to live on including red spider Mite, white fly, leaf hoppers, leaf miners, small caterpillars, beetle larvae, mealy bugs and the eggs of other lady bugs like the 28 spotted lady bug.

Green Lacewing will lay 300 to 500 eggs over the month of their lives and reside close to their food source of aphids. The eggs hatch in 3 to 6 days. The larvae have 3 instars before it pupates. After 10 to 14 days as pupae the adults emerge. They winter under rocks and logs in natural bush land. It is important to have natural landscape around to keep the balanced cycle going. Lacewings are more fastidious eaters which prefer to eat aphids and will eat 600 to 1,000 aphids in their life time. They will also eat red spider Mite, white fly, leaf hoppers, leaf miners when they approach to close and small caterpillars.

<<OIPM Photo 24.5>>

Hover flies are a group of insects which often mimic wasps in size and colour. While the adults are pollen or nectar feeders the larval stage are interesting in that different specie diets vary from decomposing vegetable matter, decomposing animal matter to being insectivorous. The insectivorous species are of great benefit to humans especially in the control of aphids and leaf hoppers,

* Use of resistant varieties: Some varieties of flowers and vegetables are more resistant to attack and a mixture of these or rotation of these is another method of deterring outbreaks. Other subtle methods would be to grow these crops out of the normal breeding times of aphids or abstain from growing aphids affected plants for a season or two,

* Natural Pyrethrum is an acceptable control of aphid as a last resort. It has to be remembered that pyrethrum is a non selective insecticide that does not just kill the thrips targeted but kills spiders and other predatory mites as well,

* Use of aphid proof mesh: Aphid proof mesh is ideal at the entrances to greenhouses and shade houses,

* Incorporate large volumes of compost and or mulch is one on the most affective ways to reduce harmful unwanted pests and to increase the soil carbon content. This includes using various mulches and rotating the mulches. Mono mulches while good are also susceptible to providing suitable growing conditions for certain viruses. Mulches also create environments to a multitude of organisms which help maintain a balance thus eliminating or at worst resisting the outgrowth of any one particular organism, fungus, bacteria or virus both detrimental and beneficial.

Whitefly:

Whiteflies are small sucking insect related to aphids, leafhoppers, and mealybugs. They are usually found on the undersides of young leaves and have the capacity for rapid reproduction when conditions are favourable. When leaves are disturbed their presence in infested crops is indicate by clouds of white small flying insects taking wing. Adults and nymphs are usually found feeding on the underside of leaves.

Organic Integrated Pest Management

Virus infected plants cannot be saved. Control measures to prevent or reduce the levels of it spreading must be implemented immediately, which include removal and burning or composting of all plant material in hot compost. Hot compost involves the burning of the infected material towards the center and using a high nitrogenous compost mix so that the temperatures remain very high for several days to a week. Minimizing the spread of the infected whiteflies is critical to reducing further outbreaks on the property and adjacent properties.

* Garden/Agricultural Hygiene: Old crops infested with whiteflies are the major source of virus recontamination and should be sprayed for whiteflies and removed as soon as possible. This is imperative if similar crops are to be planted nearby or garden plants are involved if young crops. An infected garden plant must be removed and burnt.

* Use of sticky traps: Once whiteflies have been detected at increasing numbers above the norm for your area the use of blue and yellow sticky traps to capture adult Whiteflies is a useful tool to help avoid the numbers becoming problem some. Whiteflies are attracted to yellow and pale blue over other colours making them more selective.

* Crop rotation and spacing: Avoid overlapping sowings of susceptible crops and sequential plantings side by side or adjacent to infected areas to minimize virus spread from one crop to the next.

* Weeds removal: The elimination or management of soft weeds especially on the windward side, moist areas on higher land and headlands, irrigation channels, on fallow land, under hydroponic tables and around greenhouses as they are humid habitats which whiteflies enjoy and host whiteflies and their viruses. Flowering weeds are particularly attractive to whiteflies and it is recommended that weeds be destroyed well before planting and not as crops are planted, as virus infected whiteflies will migrate from the infected weeds to the young healthy plants.

Small populations of mites preferably downwind and along creeks are often breeding grounds for predatory thrips at the same time as they find seclusion, safety and a regular food supply. Most these areas when correctly managed do not add to the breeding ground of the pests but encourage a balance between consumer and predator.

* Healthy planting material: Check all introduced plant material for infected plants. Seedling plants should be located well away from production areas, kept weed free and systematically monitored for insect pests and diseases.

* Biological control: If predator numbers are high enough there are biological control t whiteflies available which are cheaper and safer than using a blanket spray of toxins. The purchasing and releasing of parasitic wasps to attack whitefly will prevent large numbers from building u if they are released shortly after whitefly numbers are on the rise. Eretmocerus hayati will manage Southern Lace Whitefly while Encarsia sp. attacks both the Southern lace Whitefly and the Green Whitefly.

* Use of resistant varieties: Some varieties of flowers and vegetables are more resistant to attack and a mixture of these or rotation of these is another method of deterring outbreaks. Other subtle methods would be to grow these crops out of the normal breeding times of whiteflies or abstain from growing whitefly affected plants for a season or two.

* Natural Pyrethrum is an acceptable control of whitefly as a last resort. It has to be remembered that pyrethrum is a non selective insecticide that does not just kill the thrips targeted but kills spiders and other predatory mites as well.

* Use of Whitefly proof mesh: Whitefly proof mesh is ideal at the entrances to greenhouses and shade houses.

* Incorporate large volumes of compost and or mulch is one on the most affective ways to reduce harmful unwanted pests and to increase the soil carbon content. This includes using various mulches and rotating the mulches. Mono mulches while good are also susceptible to providing suitable growing conditions for certain viruses. Mulches also create environments to a multitude of organisms which help maintain a balance thus eliminating or at worst resisting the outgrowth of any one particular organism, fungus, bacteria or virus both detrimental and beneficial,

Flies:

The most important thing here is to accurately identify the whitefly; and to have unknown species expertly identified so that they can be appropriately managed. Several fly species are beneficial and help to control other pests of vegetable crops and in the home garden. Pollen flies are important for pollinating flowers and are often confused with fruit flies and the domestic house fly.

Flies can cause extensive damage to agricultural crops by laying eggs in plant material, particularly maturing and ripe fruit. Subsequently fly larvae feed on stems, roots and the fruit. Some flies spread soft rot organisms. Flies have a major economic impact on vegetable production, as they make the crops unfit for market. Good Integrated pest management of flies requires extensive and focused crop monitoring and scouting.

There are exotic flies such as Vegetable leaf miner (Liriomyza sativae) and Carrot rust fly (Psila rosae) which would pose a serious threat to Australia’s plant industries should they enter Australia and become established.

Organic Integrated Pest Management control methods for flies include cover sprays as a last resort with bait sprays and traps being far better options. Usually intensive eradication programs include surveillance, trapping, and spraying host materials such as fruit and trees with organic bait. Cultural control is important for fruit flies and fallen fruit should not be allowed to accumulate below the trees.

There are a number of parasitoids that kill flies in the pupae stage, which helps to reduce the next generation of flies. The release of sterile fruit flies in outbreak areas reduces the wild fruit fly population by limiting opportunities for the pest to successfully reproduce.

Queensland fruit fly (QFF) is one of the world’s worst horticultural pests. The threat of QFF is so serious that a number of quarantine (exclusion) zones have been established nationally, and the movement of fruit and vegetables is restricted so as to prevent its spread south and west. Quarantine measures are also in place for Mediterranean fruit fly. 

We used to graze between 100 and 250 ducks beneath the trees which had a 4 fold purpose.

1. They produced organic duck eggs which were marketable,

2. They ate grass and saved 40{98c9b985d4dc543f86c0cb8c6df3d397ea5754df614d759fdd5c1720a0a9cf2f} to 50{98c9b985d4dc543f86c0cb8c6df3d397ea5754df614d759fdd5c1720a0a9cf2f} on slashing in the latter years,

3. They were mobile organic fertilizing machines and

4. They ate and squabbled over any fallen or discarded fruit as soon as it hit the ground. Fruit fly was not known in the orchard while the ducks were grazing. They were grazed beneath early season fruit which was more susceptible than later season fruits.

Shore flies and fungus gnats are controlled by eliminating rotting vegetation, weeds and algae around the growing structure. Chemical controls are available but usually not required as outbreaks are uncommon. The beneficial, Hypoaspis sp., is a fungus gnat predator.

Beneficial flies:

There are a number of beneficial flies which help in the control of pests. These include:

* Hover flies – Their larvae attack and eat aphids. 

* Tachinid flies – Their larvae attack a wide range of insect pest species including Helicoverpa, loopers, armyworms, locusts and grasshoppers. 

* Green vegetable bug parasitic fly – Their larvae hatch and bore into their host the green vegetable bug. Once the larvae have bored into the bug the bug immediately stops feeding and dies before it can copulate and start the next generation.

Mites:

It is important to be able to identify pests such as mites, and to have unknown species expertly identified so that the appropriate control mechanisms can be put in place and managed.

Mites are not insects, but are in fact are related to spiders. Mites are a diverse group, with many being plant pests. Others are beneficial, such as the predatory mites Persimilis sp., Cucumeris sp. and Montdorensis sp.. Pest mites use adapted mouthparts to lacerate plant tissue and suck up the exuding sap. This can cause stippling, or fine speckling, and/or distortion of leaves, and cracks to develop on affected stems. Mites feed on the underside of leaves and breed rapidly in warm humid weather. Some mites cover plants in webbing for protection from predators while they feed and shelter. Severe infestations can kill plants.

Organic Integrated Pest Management:

The cchemical control of mites is very difficult due to s the use of broad spectrum of insecticides needed also reduces the number and effectiveness of beneficial insects and predatory mite populations at the same time. Most mites have developed varying degrees of resistance to several insecticides. Added to this, mites can be difficult to control by chemical means due to their short life cycle. Chemical sprays do not kill mite eggs and so it is important to time sprays when most mites have emerged. Chemical control of mites is usually not cost effective.

In fact mite problems are often associated with and induced by the excessive use of insecticides against other pests, which kills the natural enemies of mites, allowing their numbers to increase on the property, adjacent properties and on already polluted land.

* Cultural control methods for mites include weed control, crop rotation, clean fallowing, mixed cropping, trap or border attracting crops, minimizing dust, and changes in tillage practices.

* Biological control: Having healthy beneficial populations can help keep numbers of pest mites low. There are a number of beneficial predatory mites. Persimilis spider mite is one of the world’s most commonly reared natural enemies and feeds on two spotted mite and bean spider mite. Cucumeris predator mite feeds on broad mites and two spotted mites. Montdorensis sp. feeds on broad range of mites including the tomato russet mite. A predatory mite, Anystis wallacei, was imported from France to Australia in 1965 for biological control and has been established at some sites where it has caused significant mortality of red legged earth mites. Its effectiveness is limited by a slow migration rate and insecticide use on adjacent properties.

* Incorporate large volumes of compost and or mulch is one on the most affective ways to reduce harmful unwanted pests and to increase the soil carbon content. This includes using various mulches and rotating the mulches. Mono mulches while good are also susceptible to providing suitable growing conditions for certain viruses. Mulches also create environments to a multitude of organisms which help maintain a balance thus eliminating or at worst resisting the outgrowth of any one particular organism, fungus, bacteria or virus both detrimental and beneficial,

Caterpillars:

It is important to be able to identify the different life stages of the species whose caterpillars are becoming pests, and to have unknown species expertly identified so that all the species can be effectively managed. Caterpillars are a major pest to vegetable crops and gardens as they are voracious feeders and can cause extensive damage to leaves and fruits of the plants they feed on, even when only a few are involved.

Caterpillars are usually seasonal with one major period and one or two lesser breeding periods in a year. The major breeding season is usually during the summer months. Warm weather increases the rate and speed of hatching and development of the young caterpillars.

To control caterpillars there are a range of cultural, biological and chemical options available. It is important to identify and monitor which populations you consider to be pests and which ones are beneficial. This includes their eggs, small larvae and adults. It is also crucial to understand their environmental conditions conducive to development of the species involve and know what is acceptable to you before intervening. 

Cultural Control of caterpillars is now crucial because of insecticide     resistance and the unwanted effects that broad spectrum insecticides have on predators and the environment at large. GIPM primarily relies on monitoring the crop regularly and making strategic control decisions according to established thresholds.

*Biological control: There are many parasitoids that can now be purchased like wasps in the Trichogramma sp. and Tachinid sp. flies, predatory bugs, spiders, lacewings, ladybird beetles and other predatory beetles. The idea is to establish these on the block so if an unacceptable outbreak occurs they will be a week or 2 behind ready to make a meal of the situation. Following our initial year on the orchard where the Citrus Swallowtail Butterfly was a problem we never had problems with caterpillars.

Many caterpillars can be controlled with a single application of Bacillus thuringiensis. Bacillus thuringiensis is most toxic causing starvation and gut problems in the insect species of the Lepidoptera,where they stop feeding immediately. It is harmless to birds, which may consume the affected grubs.

(Moths and butterflies) and to a lesser extent in Diptera (flies and mosquitoes), Coleoptera (beetles), Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants & saw flies) and nematodes. With such a wide variety of victims it should be used sparingly and strictly as a target spray when used.

Beetles & Weevils:

The most important thing here is to again accurately identify the beetle or weevil involved; and to have unknown species expertly identified so that they can be appropriately managed. Several beetle species are beneficial and help to control other pests of vegetable crops and in the home garden. Some beetles are pollen eaters and because of their body structures are generally clumsy and awkward making them excellent pollinators of flowers. Others prefer a diet of aphids, scale insects or thrips making them welcome visitors to the garden. Others like Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata the 28 spotted Lady beetle Aulacophora hilaris and Aulacophora abdominalis 2 of the Curcubit beetles have given their cousins an unwarranted bad name.

Beetles and Weevils are the largest and most diverse order of insects on the planet, and have mouthparts designed for biting sucking and chewing. They all belong to the order Coleoptera and suborders Adephaga, Archostemata, Myxophaga or Polyphaga. The Curculionida known as the weevils and the Staphylinidae are the 2 most commonly encountered families of beetles found in Australia and world wide. The chances are if you find a beetle or weevil you may have located a new species as fewer than 45{98c9b985d4dc543f86c0cb8c6df3d397ea5754df614d759fdd5c1720a0a9cf2f} of the worlds estimated 1,000,000 beetles have been named.

Beetles generally do not cause major problems in the garden or on the farm but occasionally a few species explode in numbers. We consistently had problems with the 28-spotted ladybird beetle (Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata) eating its way through our Zucchinis. This was an annual event that played out in mid December every year. You could set the calendar by them. It was imperative that we had the plants in early and harvested by January. Our snake bean crops also suffered a similar fete shortly after New Years day with the beans being totally dehydrated by mid January. Again planting a few weeks earlier solved the problem. In later years the problem abated naturally as predatory species built up numbers. As for other pests, it is important to control weeds, clean up residues soon after harvest and use suitable crop rotations to minimize pest numbers. Cultivation or a long weed free fallow before planting may help decrease pest pressure. Always maintain seedling health. In the above cases the beetles migrated in from the surrounding bushland where the bean beetle would feed on different Cassia specie before taking a liking to our beans.

Organic Integrated Pest Management:

* Maintain good predatory habitats which create balance in the off season so that the predators can spring into action as soon as a problem begins to emerge.

* Biological control: We found that no insecticide was effective against this type of explosion because as soon as we sprayed within an hour the culprits were back again thus timing proved to be the most effective control. This lead to outputs decreasing with profits being substantially affected on these crops.

Bugs:
In this section I refer to bugs as being sap sucking pests which cover many different families. I have excluded those sap suckers already mentioned. Both the immature nymphs and adult can cause damage to a wide range of vegetable crops and plants in the garden through using their needle like mouthparts to pierce the plant and suck up the cell contents. This infiltration of the cells is a major transmission of viruses and other diseases

Organic Integrated Pest Management:

* Maintain good predatory habitats which create balance in the off season so that the predators can spring into action as soon as a problem begins to emerge.

* Chemical control: Insecticides may be required if numbers of Rutherglen bug become too high. Refer to the APVMA website or a commercial chemical database for pesticide options.

* Biological control: Green vegetable bug numbers are often kept under control by small wasp parasitoids. Green vegetable bug eggs are frequently controlled by a tiny introduced wasp Trissolcus basalis. Other natural predators of this pest include ants, spiders, and predatory bugs so it is important to maintain ecologically balanced areas within the garden and surrounding portions of the farm to attract and harbour these predators.

Although Bacillus thuringiensis is most toxic casing starvation and gut problems in the insect species of the Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) and to a lesser extent in the Diptera (flies and mosquitoes), Coleoptera (beetles), Hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants & saw flies) and nematodes. With such a wide variety of victims it should be used sparingly and as a target spray when used.

Bacillus thuringiensisis is worthwhile trying, on different specie of the Coloptera (beetles) order when the numbers are sufficiently larger enough to allow the transmission of the bacteria from one individual to another.

Mealybugs & Scale insects:

Mealybugs are more frequently problem some when the weather is warm and humid but are easy to control. Scale Insects are most active during the warmer summer moths and have proven a real problem on orchards where toxic chemical sprays are used. Sprays do not kill the scale insects in the mature reproductive stage.

Organic Integrated Pest Management:

* Maintain good predatory habitats which create balance in the off season so that the predators can spring into action as soon as a problem begins to emerge.

* Biological Control: mealy Bugs and Scale insects are very easily controlled with OIPM biological methods. The most important predators of mealybugs include the Green lacewing larvae and lady beetles. Both these predators attack the vulnerable nymph stages. Both scales insects and mealybugs are parasitized by Trichogramma specie wasps lay their eggs inside the body of the nymph and adults.

* Incorporate large volumes of compost and or mulch is one on the most affective ways to reduce harmful unwanted pests and to increase the soil carbon content. This includes using various mulches and rotating the mulches. Mono mulches while good are also susceptible to providing suitable growing conditions for certain viruses. Mulches also create environments to a multitude of organisms which help maintain a balance thus eliminating or at worst resisting the outgrowth of any one particular organism, fungus, bacteria or virus both detrimental and beneficial,

Nematodes:

The good, the bad and the ugly all come together again in Nematodes. Nematodes are the most numerous multicellular animals on the planet and occupy every niche from the deepest oceans, rivers and soil to the top of the highest mountains. One handful of soil may contain thousands of the microscopic worms like creatures. They are insectivorous, herbivorous, carnivorous or scavengers. Free living species are abundant, including nematodes that feed on bacteria, fungi, and other nematodes, yet the vast majority of species encountered are poorly understood biologically specimens. There are nearly 25,000 described species classified in the phylum Nemata.

It is important to have expert identification of nematode problems as symptoms may be confused with other disease or nutritional problems. Nematodes are an area that few have expertise in.

Most nematodes are small, non segmented worm like organisms which cannot be seen with the naked eye. The smallest measure just 50 microns in diameter and about 0.3mm or less in length to over 8 meters in length. While the vast majority of Nemata species have a beneficial role in the soil, some species are pests and impact our gardens and agricultural production.

Nematodes can be differentiated by their feeding type or mouthparts. While bacterial feeding nematodes have a tube-like structure to suck bacteria, fungal feeding nematodes have a piercing needle (stylet), which penetrates fungal cells and enables the nematode to suck cell contents. Root feeding parasitic nematodes like the root knot Nemata, also have piercing mouthparts to pierce root cells while the predators feed on other nematodes and small soil organisms.

From the human perspective the bad parasitic nematodes are pests because they feed on plant roots and slow plant growth while others live in the intestines of animals as parasites or stealing the very food we eat prior to being digested. The good beneficial nematodes attack and kill a range of pests such as borers, grubs, thrips and beetles, with negligible effects on non target species.

Conducive factors & Transmission:

Nematodes require water to move and are generally found in well structured soil with larger pore spaces, or coarser sandy type soils which describe most types of better quality agricultural soils. Soil disturbances, suitable mono crop cultivation, even soil moisture and a lack of adequate organic matter are factors that are conducive to the presence of parasitic plant nematode outbreaks.

Nematodes are spread by water runoff, infested plant material and infested soil on equipment and people. Root knot nematode may be spread by planting infested tubers and plants, which may not necessarily show symptoms that the Nematodes are present in the plants.

Management:

Nematode control in Australia is heavily dependent on general soil fumigants and non fumigant nematicides, which can be effective when applied with proper soil preparation. However nematacide use should be part of an Integrated Pest Management program, together with soil testing.

Prevention:

* For the home gardener the removal of one or 2 plants with good Organic Integrated Pest Management which includes the use of variable deep layering of mulches, diversity of plant types especially those from local gene pool stock which show greater resistance to nematode attack, minimal soil disturbance, soil moisture variation throughout the year will pretty well guarantee the success of the soil remaining virtually parasitic nematode free.

* For the farmer Nematodes require a 5 pronged attack that must be sustained over several years. The single most important thing is the incorporation of mulches and compost into the soil prior to sowing. The inclusion of organic matter and green manure crops encourage the release of micro organisms which are detrimental to parasitic nematode development or survival.

* Soil testing to give an indication of the risk of planting a particular field as nematodes often has a patchy distribution even on the one site; it may be possible to split the field into sections, collecting samples for testing from each section. The application of insecticides and nematicides will cause a loss of certification or at best the partial loss of certification. This must be weighed up when making a decision on which is more financially better.

* Rotations and break crops are best chosen with accurate soil counts of particular nematode species. Rotating susceptible crops with non susceptible crops like cereals and grasses mixed with a Tagetes species. The timing of Tagetes species is important as they may need to be ploughed back into the soil prior to seeding to prevent later problems as a weed with some specie in some areas.

* Fallow periods of more than six months can reduce populations of some parasitic nematodes dramatically. If it is possible to maintain bare ground, it is then important to maintain a dry and baking soil surface for long periods between crops. Weeds can act as hosts and allow nematode numbers to increase so must be kept to a minimum during this period. Plough out the crop as soon as harvesting is finished. It is also important to assess the risks of water and wind erosion on the bare fields. This method while affective is very climate orientated and reliant on dry periods between crops.

* Planting in late autumn or early spring can allow crops to become established when soil temperatures are cooler and less conducive to invasion and production of nematodes.

* Incorporate large volumes of compost and or mulch is one on the most affective ways to reduce harmful unwanted pests and to increase the soil carbon content. This includes using various mulches and rotating the mulches. Mono mulches while good are also susceptible to providing suitable growing conditions for certain viruses. Mulches also create environments to a multitude of organisms which help maintain a balance thus eliminating or at worst resisting the outgrowth of any one particular organism, fungus, bacteria or virus both detrimental and beneficial,

It is important to track, properly identify nematode species until a balance is reached. The following web site is an excellent site for further information on Nematodes. nematode.unl.edu/wormgen.htm

Vertebrate Pests:

Vertebrates are often overlooked as pests in the home garden and can be the most difficult to overcome. They include both native and feral birds, mammals, or reptiles that cause damage to agricultural crops and domestic plants. Introduced feral animals I have seen cause problems in Australia include rabbits, cats, dogs, foxes, mice, rats, horses, camels, cows, pigs, goats, water buffalo, Indian Myna, sparrows and starlings.

Some native animals have also caused problems especially where their native habitat is being cleared and food sources are under pressure like the Rainbow Lorikeet, Red headed Flying Fox and Grey Flying Fox, the Ring Tail Possum and Brush Tail Possum. possums are generally a small problem on orchards and farms but can be menacing in the home garden. usually apple cores, banana peels soft vegetable matter left out away from the garden is enough to deter them from your crops.

All vertebrate pests need a specific method for eradication and or removal along with monitoring.

Rodents: Rats and mice can be a significant problem especially to grain growers and as we found out during the early development of the orchard we grew seeds to supplement our income. Significant damage was caused which e estimated to be around $6,000 at the time plus baits which we were reluctant to use. A friend suggested acquiring a fox terrier to combat the problem. Sceptically we bought a small bitch (Miniature fox terrier) and immediately she proved to be the answer. Our losses the following season were negligible as she would patrol the boundaries, duck pens and seed storage areas. Her pups were all competitive and hunted the vermin incessantly and being rewarded with a pat and cuddle.

Feral Cats: Domestic cats often survive and reproduce without close association to humans. Cats are usually cunning and become wary of traps. It is almost impossible to catch more than one in a trap as the scent is enough to discourage other cats from the trap. Our fox terriers were called out frequently in Nana Glen to locate cats, flush them out and track them down. Fox terriers in small groups of 2 or 3 will bring down the largest cat and kill it. The dogs work in pairs; one dog grabs the tail so that the cat is unable to scratch, while the second dog once the cat is disarmed goes for the throat.

Foxes: Our fox terriers were again frequently called out in Nana Glen to locate foxes and flush them out. The foxies hunt in pairs. Foxes are more cunning than cats but still moved on quickly. The foxes; without the use of shooting, would only move the foxes into a new district. They were however very effective in keeping our ducks safe and we never lost a bird through dogs, cats or foxes with the added advantage of never having the birds go off the lay. The encouragement of Dingoes has proven to be a good deterrent of foxes in National Parks and should be encouraged in the wider population.

Prepared baiting stations with follow up baiting have proven to be another reasonable method of eradication.

Rabbits: Rabbits selectively feed on certain species of plants at critical stages of development such as seeds and seedlings. Vegetables which are often targeted include beans, peas, beets, broccoli, carrot, lettuce, and herbs like parsley. Here again the fox Terriers come into their own to locate and flush the rabbits out of their burrows. The dogs must be taught not to hunt native species. So effective was our training that they often caught quails and bought them into the house where they were released unharmed. Look daddy aren’t e good now for a pat and treat. Yeah right!

Deep ripping with the removal of fallen logs that rabbits use for burrows is an affective method in reducing their habitat. The problem is this also removes habitat for native burrowing animals. Again here the minature fox terriers came to the fore.

Feral Pigs: Feral pigs are the descendants of domestic pigs that escaped and have bred in the wild. They rest and shelter in crops of larger holdings, eat crops during harvest time, trample pasture, and cause serious soil disturbance when they uproot large tracts of ground in search of roots to eat.

There are 2 main methods of pig reduction to eradication and both are best carried out over a large area or with several properties combining together. Baiting with 1080 is effective against large numbers of pigs. Baiting has to be done in conjunction with authorized Government baiters.

Arial shooting can reduce the numbers quickly so that target baiting can be incorporated prior to the pigs breeding up their numbers again.

Ground shooting with dogs to flush the pigs out in densely forested and marshy areas is also affective on smaller confined numbers.

Wild Dogs: Wild dogs can be a major pest threatening livestock and production in Australia. There are 2 main methods of dog reduction to eradication and both are best carried out over a large area or with several properties combining together. Baiting with 1080 is effective against large numbers of pigs. Baiting has to be done in conjunction with authorized Government baiters.

Ground shooting with dogs to flush the dogs out in densely forested and marshy areas is also affective on smaller confined numbers.

Horses, Camels, Cows, Goats & Water Buffalo: These are all domesticated animals that have gone wild. They are environmental pests destroying large areas of grassland and shrubs in arid and semi arid areas of Australia. Many native plants and animals are now extinct in many areas where they were once had previous abundant populations. The Water Buffalo is responsible for Arrow leaf Monochoria’s populations falling into steep decline and only persist where Water Buffalo are excluded while the Cognate Land Snail has disappeared from Cobourg Peninsula and is now restricted to the Tiwi Islands.

Acacia sessiliceps, Erythrina vespertilio, Santalum acuminatum, Santalum lanceolatum, Ventilago viminalis along with Ipomoea costata are just a few examples of native vegetation which has been greatly reduced by camels and goats.

As these animals are herbivorous and generally considered nomadic are difficult to lure to feed stations so the only method open to landholders is shooting. This is best carried out prior to the wet season before calves are dropped and in coordinated groups of adjoining stake holders.

Large scale shootings have been reasonably successful in the short term but a national plan which includes the re domestication of the animals for meat and hides production is urgently needed to curb the numbers. This would add value to each carcass which would open economic opportunities for in the north and west of the country already suffering from early global warming.

Birds:

Birds are becoming an increasing problem in Australia, particularly with recent expansions in the grape and wine industry, together with the olives, mandarins and nut industries. More than 20 species of birds conflict with primary production by significantly reducing the profitability of a wide range of crops in horticultural industries.

There are a range of methods available to control feral birds. You will need to check, which methods are legal in your State or Territory.

Bird control includes non lethal techniques such as scaring devices, habitat manipulation and netting to trap the birds. Lethal methods include chemical repellents and baiting.

For common native species like the Rainbow Lorikeet the government needs to seriously look at controlled trapping and marketing of the birds overseas.

This would have a small impact on bird numbers but a big impact in some agricultural areas. In our case the removal of 30 to 50 Lorikeets annually may have solved the problem and allowed us to harvest an additional 120 cases of fruit counting the 15 sacrificial trees and fruit damaged on adjacent trees. This would also have lead to a small profit on the sale of the birds or cover the costs of National Parks to net and sell the birds abroad.

In our case we realized the problem early and planted an additional 15 trees (10 mandarins and 5 loquats) which were strategically placed and sacrificed for the birds.

Netting of orchards is both expensive and time consuming but necessary to deliver marketable fresh fruit.

An alternative is to plant or revegetate areas close to orchards that flower or fruit at the same time with native species.

Flying Foxes:

The shooting of flying foxes is totally ineffective to reducing flying fox numbers or damage to crops when large numbers occur in orchards. Full exclusion netting is the most effective protection available against flying fox damage.

The netting of orchards is both expensive and time consuming but necessary to deliver marketable fresh fruits that have not been affected by flying foxes.

An alternative is to plant or revegetate areas close to orchards that flower or fruit at the same time with native species. It has been shown that the animals would prefer their wild food to domestic crops but with dwindling resources have discovered this alternative to starving.

Fungal diseases:

Fungal diseases may be confused with those caused by bacterial diseases so it is important to have a plant diagnostics laboratory or state Agricultural Department to confirm the bacterial pathogen causing the disease in a crop so that the disease can be appropriately managed.

Fungi constitute the largest number of plant pathogens and are responsible for a range of serious plant diseases. Most vegetable diseases are caused by fungi. They damage plants by killing cells and/or causing plant stress. Sources of fungal infections are infected seed, soil, crop debris, nearby crops and weeds. Most fungi are spread by spore through wind and water splash, and through the movement of contaminated soil, animals, workers, machinery, tools, seedlings and other plant material. Few are limited spread by actual contact of fluids. They enter plants through natural openings such as stomata and through wounds caused by pruning, harvesting, hail, insects, other diseases, and mechanical damage.

Some of the fungi are responsible for foliar diseases like Downy mildews, Powdery mildews, and White blister are some of the highly prevalent foliar fungi. Other fungi include Clubroot, various Pythium specie, various Fusarium specie, Rhizoctonia specie, Sclerotinia and Sclerotium specie which are all soil borne diseases.

Some fungi occur on a wide range of vegetables. These diseases include the downy mildews of Anthracnose, Botrytis rots and the powdery mildews of Fusarium. The rust type fungi include Rhizoctonia rots, Sclerotinia rots and Sclerotium rots. Others are specific to a particular crop group like root club (Plasmodiophora brassicae) in brassicas, Leaf blight (Alternaria dauci) in carrots, and Red root complex in beans.

Common fungal diseases and crops affected:

Some examples of common fungal diseases of vegetable crops are provided in the table below with some typical symptoms. The table is taken from the www.ausveg.com.au

White blister/White rust (Albugo candida)	Optimum conditions for disease development are 3-4 hours in mild temperatures (6- 24˚C).	Brassicas (including Asian leafy brassicas).	White blisters and swellings on leaves and heads of affected plants; blisters consist of masses of white dust-like spores; up to 100{98c9b985d4dc543f86c0cb8c6df3d397ea5754df614d759fdd5c1720a0a9cf2f} losses have been reported.
Downy mildews (individual species damage particular crop families)	High humidity, leaf wetness and cool to mild temperatures (10-16 °C).	Wide host range including onions; peas; lettuce; celery; spinach; kale; herbs; cucurbits; brassicas; Asian leafy brassicas.	Symptoms usually begin with yellowish leaf spots which then turn brown; downy growth appears on underside of leaves.
Powdery mildews (some species are restricted to particular crops or crop families)	Moderate temperatures (20-25˚C); relatively dry conditions (unlike downy mildews).	Wide host range and very common, especially in greenhouse crops: cucumber; melons; pumpkin; zucchini; parsnip; beetroot; potato; herbs; peas; bitter melon; tomato; capsicum; Brussels sprouts; cabbage; swedes.	Small, white, powdery patches on most above-ground surfaces; usually observed first on undersides of leaves but eventually cover both surfaces; affected leaves become yellow, then brown and papery and die.
Clubroot (Plasmodiophora brassicae)	Warm weather; acidic soil (pH less than 7); high soil moisture.	Brassicas (including Asian leafy brassicas).	Plants are yellow and stunted and may wilt in hotter parts of the day; large malformed ‘clubbed’ roots which prevent the uptake of water and nutrients, reducing the potential yield of the crop.
Pythium species	Cold, wet soil conditions; known as water moulds, they enter untreated water supplies; water supplies for irrigation and hydroponics should be tested regularly.	Many vegetable crops in including cucurbits; brassicas; lettuce.	May kill seedlings, which die before they emerge or soon after emergence; plant collapse.
Sclerotinia rots (S. sclerotiorum and S. minor) – a range of common names are used	Windy, cool, humid weather; wet soil; survival structures known as sclerotia remain viable in soil for long periods (10-15 years).	Most vegetable crops.	Water-soaked rotting of stems, leaves, and sometimes fruit; followed by a fluffy, white and cottony fungal growth which contain hard black pebble-like sclerotia.
Sclerotium rots (Sclerotium rolfsii and S. cepivorum)	S. rolfsii – Warm, moist conditions. S. cepivorum –Development is favoured by cool soil conditions (14-19˚C) and low moisture.	S. rolfsii – Wide host range including: beans; beets; carrot; potato; tomato; capsicum; cucurbits. S. cepivorum – only affects onions, garlic and related Alliums (shallots; spring onions; leeks).	S. rolfsii – Lower stem and root rots; coarse threads of white fungal growth surround the diseased areas; small brown fungal resting bodies. S. cepivorum – Yellowing and wilting; fluffy fungal growth containing black sclerotia forms at the bases of bulbs.
Fusarium wilts and rots (Various Fusarium species including F. solani and F. oxysporum)	Warm to hot weather.	Wide host range including: brassicas; carrots; cucurbits; onions; spring onions; potato; tomato; herbs; peas; beans.	Causes severe root and crown rots or wilt diseases by attacking roots and basal stems; cucurbit fruit and potato tubers can be affected in storage.
Botrytis rots – for example Grey mould (Botrytis cinerea)	Cool, wet weather.	Celery; lettuce; beans; brassicas; cucumber; capsicum; tomato.	Softening of plant tissues in the presence of grey fungal growth.
Anthracnose (Colletotrichum spp. except for in lettuce – Microdochium panattonianum)	Cool, wet conditions.	Wide range of crops including: lettuce; celery; beans; cucurbits; tomato, capsicum; potato; globe artichoke.	Typical symptoms begin with sunken and water-soaked spots appearing on leaves, stems and/or fruit.
Rhizoctonia rots (Rhizoctonia solani) – range of common names, e.g. Bottom rot (lettuce) and Wire stem (Brassicas)	Warm, humid weather; can survive for long periods in the soil in the absence of a host plant.	Wide host range including: lettuce; potato; brassicas; beans; peas; beets; carrots; capsicum; tomato; cucurbits.	Range of symptoms depending on the crop being grown but can affect roots, leaves, stems, tubers and fruit; plants wilt and may collapse and die.
Damping-off (Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Phytophthora, Fusarium or Aphanomyces)	Occurs under cold, wet soil conditions; shore flies and fungus gnats can spread Pythium and Fusarium.	Many vegetable crops including: leafy vegetables; brassicas; carrots; beetroot; cucurbits, eggplant; tomato; coriander; spring onions; beans.	Young seedlings have necrotic stems or roots; seedlings die or show a reduction in growth.
Cavity spot (Pythium sulcatum)	Growing carrots after carrots; acidic soil; not harvesting carrots as soon as they reach marketable size.	Carrots	Cavity spots are small elliptical lesions often surrounded by a yellow halo.
Tuber diseases (Various species)		Potato and sweet potato.	Potato tubers may be infected with superficial skin diseases, such as common scabs, powdery scab, and Rhizoctonia. Sweetpotatoes may be infected by scurf.
Rusts (several species, e.g. Puccinia sorghi – sweet corn; Uromyces appendiculatus – beans; Puccinia allii – spring onions).	Wind can spread spores great distances; favoured by low rainfall, 100{98c9b985d4dc543f86c0cb8c6df3d397ea5754df614d759fdd5c1720a0a9cf2f} relative humidity and cool to mild temperatures.	Sweet corn; beans; onions; spring onions; beets; celery; silverbeet; endive.	Small, red or reddish-brown pustules that form on the underside of the leaves and sometimes on the pods as well; dusty reddish-brown spores released from pustules (may be black in cold weather).
Black root rot (Different species on different vegetable crops)	Cool soil temperatures; high soil moisture.	Lettuce; beans; cucurbits.	Blackening of roots; stunted plants; plants may die.

ausveg.com.au/intranet/technical-insights/cropprotection/other-vegetables.htm

Management:

Organic Integrated Pest Management (OIPM) is successful in the control of most fungal diseases in both the home garden and farm situation. OIPM considers all aspects of how to increase soil fertility, health and productivity. This in return delivers fewer problems and when problems do arise they are usually limited to a few susceptible plants or isolated pockets. To reduce the affects of unwanted fungi requires a good understanding of the fungi’s life cycle; the periods during which the crops or garden are susceptible and the influence of environmental conditions on the farm or in the garden.

Most of the following management strategies also apply to the control of insect pests so are really duplicated and reinforce the need to grow in conjunction with nature and not opposed to, or in isolation to nature.

* Understand the lifecycles, survival mechanisms and conducive, environmental conditions for fungi in your area and in particular in your garden or on your farm and avoid them,

* Be committed to habitat sanitation which includes removing all weeds, crop debris, and likely volunteer hosts,

* Incorporate large volumes of compost and or mulch is one on the most affective ways to reduce harmful unwanted viruses. This includes using various mulches and rotating the mulches. Mono mulches while good are also susceptible to providing suitable growing conditions for certain viruses,

* Use resistant or more tolerant varieties and plants found in your local area as opposed to exotics or those which need very specific growing conditions.

* Use clean transplants and seed and treat seeds prior to incorporating them onto the farm,

* Monitor weather conditions particularly temperature, humidity, and leaf wetness as fungi usually appear immediately following prolonged wet or humid periods,

* Have knowledge of relevant disease prediction models

* Understand the implications for irrigation timing and minimize free moisture and high humidity periods. Irrigate early in the morning prior to sunrise rather than in the evening in humid locations. Do not irrigate during peak periods of high spore release,

* Use appropriate crop rotations to avoid build up of specific fungi in the soil and use a wide variety of plants in the garden instead of monocultures of one or two trees with lawn

* Avoid past heavily infested blocks by testing soil for soil borne diseases prior to planting or plant fungi resistant crops or trees and shrubs like Melaleuca or Leucopogon specie,

* Monitor crops regularly and be able to detect early symptoms on your crop,

* Amend and manage soil to disadvantage the fungi. Some fungal diseases can survive in the soil for 30 years or more. This can be achieved by using and rotating the types of mulch used in composts or on the soil surfaces,

* Minimize ways, in which the disease can spread on the farm by removing and composting sick plants when symptoms first appear in high nitrogenous, hot compost,

* Understand the influence of planting times, plant spacing and overlapping crops,

* Only apply preventative, organic fungicides based on weather conditions at the very first sign of a fungal outbreak,

* Understand which organic fungicides work best with each type of fungus and rotate the chemical groups and methods for best results,

* Use crop rotation to increase soil fertility and decrease detrimental fungi from getting a foothold.

The main permissible chemicals used organically are Copper and Sulphur which are used at less than 8 kilograms per hectare per year. The only times I have used either of these products on our farm was at a rate of around 400 grams a hectare on curcubits in a very wet season. The results were more than satisfactory though a follow up spray was needed in an isolated patch oddly enough in a dry part of the farm.

Bacterial diseases:

Bacterial diseases may be confused with those caused by fungal diseases so it is important to have a plant diagnostics laboratory or state Agricultural Department to confirm the bacterial pathogen causing the disease in a crop so that the disease can be appropriately managed.

Unwanted pathogenic bacteria can cause many serious diseases of vegetables, annuals, trees and shrubs. They penetrate plant tissue through wounds or natural plant openings. Wounds from damage by insects or tools during weeding, pruning and picking procedures are the most likely forms of transmission.

Bacteria only become active and cause problems when factors are conducive for them to multiply more rapidly than usual. Some factors conducive to infection include: high humidity, over crowding, poor air circulation, plant stress caused by over watering, under watering or irregular watering, poor soil health, and deficient or excess nutrients. More often the causes are from plants with soft high nitrogenous fertilizers rather than those which are under fertilized.

Bacterial organisms can survive in the soil and crop debris, and in seeds and other plant parts. Weeds can act as carriers and thus aid in the transmission of many bacteria. Infected propagating material and crop residues are biological means of transmission while water splash and wind-driven rain along with contaminated equipment and overhead irrigation systems favour the spread of bacterial diseases from infected dams and bores.

Adverse weather conditions often favour the spread of bacteria. Warm, humid weather favours the development of some bacterial while others favour by cool, wet weather. Bacterial reproduction is often arrested through dry conditions. Bacterial wilt caused by Ralstonia solanacearum is an exception and is exasperated when hot dry conditions follow a period of warm humid weather.

Disease management strategies aim to favour the host plant’s growth and development while attacking vulnerable stages in the lifecycle of the pathogen to prevent or restrict its development. The key means of bacterial disease management include:

* Exclusion or eradication of the pathogen includes the use of quarantining of all material especially orchard material and the use of pathogen tested seeds and propagating materials,

* Monitor crops regularly and use predictive models,

* Reduce the pathogen levels by crop rotation,

* Incorporate large volumes of compost and or mulch is one on the most affective ways to reduce harmful unwanted viruses. This includes using various mulches and rotating the mulches. Mono mulches while good are also susceptible to providing suitable growing conditions for certain viruses,

* Remove weeds and incorporate crop residues that can host the disease and mulch or compost,

* Protect the host plant by using resistant plant varieties,

* Minimize mechanical damage to crops and damage by insect pests,

* Avoid working in crops when they are wet,

* Spray with a registered organic bactericide (Neem oil, Citric acid) at the first incursion of bacteria when weather conditions favour disease development to prevent infection spreading. Europe is well advanced in the synergistic mixtures of organic acids including formic, propionic and lactic acid with their ammonic salts and paraformaldehydes as a fungicide and bactericide which continues to work over extended time periods.

* Understand chemical resistance and rotation of organic bactericides,

* If the plants are already infected, isolate and destroy them and prune infected leaves, but avoid excessive handling of diseased plants; if the disease is systemic and has spread throughout the plant, the plant cannot recover and should be destroyed (burning or composting in high temperature composts,

* Use correct temperatures and packing conditions during transport and storage.

Viral diseases:

Viral diseases may be confused with many other diseases so it is important to have a plant diagnostics laboratory or state Agricultural Department to confirm the bacterial pathogen causing the disease in a crop so that the disease can be appropriately managed.

Viruses are immobile and need a living organism known as vectors or carriers for successful transmission. The most significant transmitters of plant viruses include aphids, whiteflies, thrips, and leafhoppers, which have piercing which pierce the softer epidermal cells of a plant similar to a mosquito on animals. Viruses can also be transmitted by other insects, mites, nematodes, fungi, infected pollen or vegetative propagating material, contact between plants, contaminated or infected seeds and infected farming and gardening tools.

The virus is transmitted by sap sucking insects in two ways: persistent transmission and non-persistent transmission, which relates to the time taken by an insect to acquire and transmit the virus. (See above section on Aphids)

Viruses have an intricate relationship between the host plants, and the transmitters which creates a greater need to understand the growing environment of the plant but its vectors and the plant being grown. Organic Integrated Pest Management is the best approach to minimizing any outbreaks of the disease and controlling any outbreaks that may occur.

Avoidances include:

* Exclusion or avoidance includes the proper and thorough quarantine of all plant materials entering the property. Grow crops in regions where the virus seldom occurs or during periods when the virus or its vectors are at a low activity level and use virus free seedling transplants and shrubs and trees in the garden or as windbreaks.

* Incorporate large volumes of compost and or mulch is one on the most affective ways to reduce harmful unwanted viruses. This includes using various mulches and rotating the mulches. Mono mulches while good are also susceptible to providing suitable growing conditions for certain viruses,

* Reduce the potential of detrimental viruses spreading which includes controlling the monoculture of weeds and other virus host plants and the insect vectors, destroy old crops promptly by mulching or composting, separate new crops from maturing crops and avoid overlapping crops, particularly where year round cropping is practiced which is common in small operations and in home gardens.

* Protection of the host plant can be affectively carried out by using resistant varieties, using barrier crops to reduce insect vector activity in the crop and the use of deterrents within the crop or garden.

In conclusion much of what I have written contradicts official Federal and State Agricultural policies that have evolved around non sustainable Agricultural techniques. I deliberately used the words Organic Integrated Pest Management (OIPM) as opposed to their Integrated Pest Management (IPM) as Organics is more like preventative medicine rather than applied medicine following the outbreak of the disease or pest. It needs to be noted that in the 40 years I spent in the agricultural industry (Nursery, Small Crop Farming, Home Garden, Duck Eggs and Orchard we never resorted to synthetic toxic chemicals once we understood the damage they were causing which was at the age of 25.) We then set about developing methods in each of the agricultural industries to make them both viable and environmentally friendly. This resulted in many small confrontations with fellow agriculturalists who could only preach what they were told at the time with no significant insight or foresight to where the industry was heading.

The department of Agriculture enthusiastically encourages the complete elimination of Milk Thistle because of its association with pests, fungus, bacteria and viruses. Oddly enough we actively encouraged the growth of Milk Thistle around the edge of the orchard to attract Aphids, Mealy Bugs, White Fly, other pests, fungus, bacteria and viruses so we could monitor them more easily and closely. At the same time this created the very breeding grounds for the predators of these unwanted organisms to increase which we and non organic farmer’s desire.

We sourced information from the following departments:

Cancer Council of Australia various web sites

pip.coleacp.org/…/COLEAC001_PIP_Module_10_UK_pp

www.ausveg.com.au

Further Comments from Readers:

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